SEXING:

After the post-juv moult, sexing is generally straightforward based on colour and pattern of head, breast, and upperparts. If aged incorrectly, birds in completely juv plumage (with no moult contrasts) may be mistaken for ad females, but ground colour of head and body is warmer buff or brown and body feathers typically loosely textured.

According to Svensson (1992), many birds may be sexed already in juv plumage based on the amount of white in the outer vanes on the inner visible part of the inner PP, bordering tips of PC, but some birds ambiguous:

• In males, white on innermost visible 5 mm of outer vanes of PP 7-9 reaches shaft or separated from shaft by a narrow black line (<0,5 mm).
• In females, white on innermost visible 5 mm of outer vanes of PP 7-9 separated from shaft by a wider black line (>0,5 mm, generally 1 mm broad), roughly corresponding to half of total width of outer vane.
• Some birds, presumably males (Svensson, 1992), are intermediate (black line generally 0,5-0,75 mm), and should be left unsexed.

After post-juvenile moult, the following criteria may be used:

Male:

• Breast and forehead raspberry red, sometimes hidden by buff fringes in fresh autumn plumage. Some, typically younger birds, have very little red, more orange, yellowish, or even port-coloured markings, but these are rounded, never streaked.
• Flanks warm buff or salmon pink.
• Nape light grey, contrasting with deep chestnut, lightly streaked upperparts.

Female:

• Head and breast without red, or with faint reddish markings. Breast always, usually conspicuously, streaked dark.
• Nape greyish brown, showing weaker contrast towards upperparts than in males.
• Feathers of mantle, LC and MC dull rufous or earth-brown, often streaked prominently along shafts.